E-waste and the useful life of devices

Replacing a phone or computer does not automatically make it waste. Someone else may use it. It may also sit in a drawer or be repaired; later, it may be recycled or discarded. A device’s useful life includes the time later owners use it.

Using a device for longer can reduce the need to make new electronics, but repair or resale does not always help the environment. The benefit depends on whether the used device takes the place of a new purchase. It also depends on how much repair it needs and what happens when it stops working.

What counts as e-waste

E-waste means discarded electrical and electronic products, including phones, computers, appliances, and other items with plugs or batteries. The world generated an estimated 62 million tonnes of e-waste in 2022, according to the Global E-waste Monitor. That is 7.8 kilograms per person.

The report says records show that 22.3% of the total was formally collected and recycled in a way that met environmental standards. The rest did not all go to landfills. Some electronics enter informal or undocumented channels, and records do not track every device.

When someone replaces a phone, that does not mean the phone has been discarded. The first owner might sell it or give it to someone else. Other owners store, repair, or discard old devices. These routes are hard to track, so replacement-cycle figures do not show how much e-waste there is.

How long phones stay in use

Studies of smartphone life track different measures: how long the first owner keeps a phone, how long it remains in active use across owners, or the average age of devices in use. They also cover different countries and years, so there is no single reliable figure.

A 2023 European Commission assessment reported different first-owner replacement cycles across five European countries and years. The assessment also estimated that smartphones stayed in active use for 2.7 years in Portugal, 3 years in France, and 4.3 years in Belgium. These results apply to specific countries and do not establish a current global average.

A separate European Environment Agency analysis found that the average lifespan of “hi-tech appliances” in one dataset increased from 5.6 years in 2019 to 6.4 years in 2023. Smartphones and tablets drove the increase. The dataset covers a broader category, so it cannot be directly compared with estimates of phone replacement cycles. Lifespan estimates need a date, location, and clear definition.

Why longer use can help

Making a device takes materials and energy. Using a phone for longer can reduce the number of new phones needed over time. In a 2021 life-cycle assessment, European Commission researchers found that extending smartphone use reduced modeled carbon footprints. The results depended on whether the phone needed repair.

The same study found that a used phone reduced modeled carbon footprints when it replaced a new purchase. The results depend on the scenario and do not guarantee savings for every buyer. If someone buys a refurbished phone as an extra device instead of using it in place of a new one, the manufacturing avoided is smaller. Including energy use by networks and data centers also changed the results substantially.

Repair also has environmental impacts. A separate 2021 study found different results for specific repair, remanufacturing, and refurbishment scenarios. The results depended on the study’s assumptions about the phone and the work done. A repair that keeps a phone working for several more years has a different outcome from one that uses parts and labor but adds little time.

Keeping, reselling, repairing, and recycling a device serve different purposes. Reuse can delay the need to make a replacement. Recycling can recover materials when a device is no longer usable. Recycling alone does not undo the impacts of making a new device.

What shortens a device’s life

An owner may replace a phone because its battery loses capacity, its screen breaks, or water or dust damages it. Software support, performance, repair costs, and a preference for a newer model also influence the decision. A phone may still work but become less useful when it no longer gets needed software updates.

Durable, repairable phones are easier to keep in use, but that alone does not guarantee a longer life. Repairs need to be practical and affordable, and the phone must still meet the owner’s needs. The European Environment Agency found signs of improved durability and repairability in selected phone models. It cautioned that its sample does not represent the full European market. Design improvements matter most when they help people keep using their phones.

Phone rules and end-of-use options

European Union ecodesign and energy-labeling rules for certain smartphones, tablets, and other specified phones began applying to products placed on the EU market on June 20, 2025. Among other requirements, these products must retain at least 80% of their initial battery capacity after 800 charge cycles. Manufacturers must also make specified spare parts available and provide operating-system upgrades for at least five years after the last unit of a model is placed on the market. The rules cover defined product types, include exemptions, and do not apply worldwide.

The European Commission expects the rules to raise the average lifetime of a mid-range smartphone from 3.0 to 4.1 years. The Commission’s estimate is based on a model; it does not describe results measured after the rules took effect.

First consider whether the device can keep serving its current owner or someone else. Upgrade a computer instead of replacing it when an upgrade solves the problem. Donate or resell working electronics while they remain useful. If repair or reuse no longer makes sense, take the device to an appropriate electronics collection or recycling service.

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency says not to put lithium-ion batteries or devices containing them in household garbage or curbside recycling bins. Collection options vary by location. Check local guidance or a retailer’s take-back program before dropping off a device. Back up any needed data and remove personal information before reselling, donating, or recycling it.